Abstract:
This paper assesses the applicability of a new carob waste-derived powdered activated carbon (PAC) obtained by steam activation for pharmaceutical compounds (PhCs) removal in urban wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) with activated sludge (AS) secondary treatment. The new carob-derived PAC presents chemical and textural properties similar to a high-performing commercial PAC produced from vegetable source by physical activation. The adsorption isotherms of three target PhCs, carbamazepine, diclofenac and sulfamethoxazole, spiked (at around 100 μg/L) in mixed liquor (ML) and in clarified-ML from the AS-bioreactor of a WWTP show: (i) minor reduction of PAC capacity with real MLs compared to clarified MLs; (ii) the higher the PhC hydrophobicity, the higher the PAC adsorption capacity in both water matrices; (iii) hydrophobic interactions probably overweight electrostatic interactions between the PhCs and the slightly positively charged PAC in these real water matrices with background organics and inorganics. The PhC adsorption results with ML and clarified-ML are used to calibrate the IAST-based tracer model (TRM) and predict the new PAC performance when added to AS-bioreactor vs. in post-secondary treatment, at the PhC naturally-occurring trace concentrations. The modelling projections show (i) one needs higher PAC doses than those reported in the literature, particularly in post-treatment, and (ii) the benefits of PAC dosing to the bioreactor, with only a slightly higher PAC dose being needed when compared to its post-secondary dosing and minimising the capital investment.